TDA-IME Project Final Report June, 2013 Policy and Institutional Settings Former governmental policies in a number of Asian countries have actually contributed significantly to mangrove losses. Mangrove conversion for agriculture and salt farming, and some forms of integrated mangrove aquaculture actually have a long history (e.g. Tiensongrusmee, 1972; Macintosh, 1982; Aksornkoae, 1993), whereas shrimp farming has made a more recent additional and often massive impact on mangrove loss. This situation has resulted from government policies and international development assistance advocating coastal aquaculture development from the 1950s to 1970s; followed by a rush into intensive shrimp farming that began in the 1980s, fuelled by “shrimp fever” among private investors. In Viet Nam, following the end of the war with America in 1976, demobilized Vietnamese soldiers were encouraged to convert the mangroves in the Mekong Delta to shrimp ponds within State-owned Forestry and Fishery Enterprises. Also in the 1970s, Presidential Decree 704 (Fisheries Reform Code) in the Philippines called for a rapid expansion and development of the fisheries and aquaculture sectors. Primavera (1994) cites the situation that resulted in the Philippines, where fishponds accounted for 58% of the mangrove conversion by the 1970s, as a result of the government program to build ponds with the help of international funding. Development banks were also prominent in financing shrimp hatcheries and pond infrastructure at the start of the intensive shrimp farming boom in the 1980s. Until 1996, mangrove forest areas in Thailand not already converted to shrimp farms were assigned as concessions for charcoal production, but with little enforcement of the conditions of the concession contracts. While most Asian countries have halted further mangrove conversion to aquaculture, the mangroves that remain today are also subject to other more recent threats, including pollution and climate change, especially sea level rise. Table 10 summarizes the current institutional arrangements for mangrove forests in each country and lists some of the key national laws and policies that pertain to mangroves. Because mangroves are forests growing in the marginal intertidal zone, jurisdiction over them is less clear than for terrestrial forests. Different ministries may have overlapping jurisdictions for mangroves. For example, in Cambodia, Ministry of Environment (MoE) has responsibility for mangroves within protected areas, while mangroves are managed by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) in other areas. In Viet Nam, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) and Ministry of National Resources and Environment (MONRE) share various responsibilities relevant to mangroves (see Table 10). It can be concluded that inter-ministerial coordination on mangroves frequently is inadequate. There are also issues between the national ministries and provincial (or state, or municipal) authorities over decision-making, especially regarding coastal land use. Provincial authorities tend to prioritize development over conservation, irrespective of national laws on environmental protection. In Philippines, for example, individuals can gain ownership of mangrove land by paying a real estate tax to the municipal government. Large areas of mangrove have also been taken over illegally in most countries, particularly for aquaculture. Poor delineation of Mangrove Permanent Forest Estate (Philippines), or what is generally termed Protection Forest in other countries, makes it difficult to prevent encroachment and local authorities commonly lack the capacity, or will to challenge illegal occupancy of mangrove forest land. The seriousness of policy failures and ineffective institutional management is well summed up by a statement about coastal resources in the Philippines, which are believed to be on the verge of irreversible damage: “The public attributes this condition to excessive pressures exerted by ever increasing population, unscrupulous exploitation, industrialization and lack of ecosystem appreciation.” (TDA-IME Project: Philippines country report, 2012). 52
Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of Indochina Mangrove Ecosystems
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